January 7, 2012

Sailing to Byzantium
By: W. B. Yeats (1927)

1 That is no country for old men. The young In one another’s arms, birds in the trees —Those dying generations—at their song, The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas, Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long 5 Whatever is begotten, born, and dies. Caught in that sensual music all neglect Monuments of unageing intellect. 2 An aged man is but a paltry thing, A tattered coat upon a stick, unless 10 Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing For every tatter in its mortal dress, Nor is there singing school but studying Monuments of its own magnificence; And therefore I have sailed the seas and come 15 To the holy city of Byzantium. 3 O sages standing in God’s holy fire As in the gold mosaic of a wall, Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre, And be the singing-masters of my soul. 20 Consume my heart away; sick with desire And fastened to a dying animal It knows not what it is; and gather me Into the artifice of eternity. 4 Once out of nature I shall never take 25 My bodily form from any natural thing, But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make Of hammered gold and gold enameling To keep a drowsy Emperor awake; Or set upon a golden bough to sing 30 To lords and ladies of Byzantium Of what is past, or passing, or to come.

Introduction

“Sailing to Byzantium,” composed by William Butler Yeats in 1927, is a poem that reflects the poet’s engagement with themes of aging, immortality, and the transcendence of the physical world. Written during Yeats’ later years, the poem is part of his 1928 collection The Tower, which showcases his exploration of metaphysical and existential questions. The poem’s title and setting refer to the ancient city of Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul), a symbol of spiritual and artistic purity that Yeats contrasts with the transient, sensual world.

The poem is heavily influenced by Yeats’ interest in Byzantine art and culture, which he viewed as embodying a timeless, spiritual ideal. This interest is connected to his broader fascination with history, mythology, and the occult. Byzantium represents a realm where the soul can achieve a form of immortality, free from the decay of the body. The literary allusions in the poem, such as references to Homeric and Christian imagery, situate it within a tradition of works that grapple with the relationship between the material and the eternal.

Formally, “Sailing to Byzantium” is structured as a series of four ottava rima stanzas, each with eight lines following an ABABABCC rhyme scheme. This structure supports the poem's meditative and philosophical tone, guiding the reader through the progression of ideas from the rejection of the physical world to the embrace of a transcendent, spiritual existence.

The major themes of the poem include the contrast between the temporal and the eternal, the tension between youth and age, and the quest for spiritual and artistic permanence. Yeats opens the poem with a dismissal of the sensory pleasures of the physical world, which he associates with youth: “That is no country for old men.” He contrasts this with the pursuit of an enduring form of existence, expressed through his desire to escape to Byzantium, “the holy city” where the soul can find eternal rest.

The poem’s use of language is rich with symbolism and metaphor. The “sages standing in God’s holy fire” represent spiritual wisdom and the purification of the soul, while the “golden bird” that Yeats imagines himself becoming symbolizes artistic immortality, a form free from the limitations of the human body. This bird, “hammered gold and gold enameling,” is a crafted object, eternal and unchanging, in stark contrast to the decay of the natural world.

As a Modernist poem, “Sailing to Byzantium” reflects Yeats’ preoccupation with the fragmentation of the modern world and the search for meaning in a rapidly changing society. The poem’s exploration of the tension between the physical and the spiritual, the temporal and the eternal, resonates with contemporary concerns about the fleeting nature of life and the quest for something permanent in an impermanent world.

The poem continues to speak to readers about the human condition, the desire for transcendence, and the role of art in achieving a form of immortality. Yeats’ meditation on aging and the search for spiritual fulfillment remains pertinent in a modern context where questions of identity, purpose, and the legacy of artistic expression are as significant as ever.

Questions for Consideration

1. How does Yeats contrast youth and old age in the poem? Consider the imagery and language used to depict the physical world versus the spiritual or intellectual pursuits of the elderly.
2. What does Byzantium symbolize in the poem, and why does Yeats choose it as the destination for the speaker’s spiritual journey? Discuss the cultural and historical significance of Byzantium and how it relates to the poem's themes of immortality and artistic transcendence.
3. How does the poem address the theme of mortality versus immortality? Analyze how the speaker's desire to escape the physical world reflects broader concerns about the impermanence of life and the search for something eternal.
4. What is the significance of the “sages standing in God’s holy fire”? Explore the metaphorical meaning of these figures and their role in the speaker's journey toward spiritual enlightenment.
5. How does Yeats use the imagery of art and craftsmanship in the final stanza? Discuss how the references to "hammered gold" and "gold enamelling" contribute to the poem's exploration of artistic creation and immortality.
6. How does the imagery of nature function in the poem, particularly in relation to the speaker’s rejection of it? Consider the descriptions of the natural world and how they contrast with the speaker's aspiration to transcend it.
7. How does the poem’s structure, particularly its use of ottava rima, influence the overall tone and progression of ideas? Analyze how the rhyme scheme and stanzaic form support the development of the poem's central themes.
8. What role does repetition play in the poem, particularly in the phrase “sing, and louder sing”? Discuss how repetition emphasizes certain ideas and contributes to the poem's rhythm and tone.
9. How does “Sailing to Byzantium” reflect Yeats’ own concerns with aging and the search for meaning? Explore the biographical context of the poem and how it might be read as a reflection of Yeats' personal anxieties and aspirations.
10. In what ways can “Sailing to Byzantium” be considered a Modernist poem? Examine how the poem reflects the characteristics of Modernist literature, such as the focus on existential questions and the tension between the temporal and the eternal.
11. How does the poem’s exploration of the desire for immortality resonate with contemporary concerns about aging and legacy? Discuss how the themes of the poem remain relevant in today's society, particularly in the context of modern attitudes toward aging, memory, and artistic achievement.
12. How might the poem be interpreted differently in a modern context, given advances in science, technology, and art? Consider how contemporary readers might relate to the poem's themes of transcendence and the pursuit of immortality in light of current cultural and technological developments.

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